Dies ist die Info-Datei libc.info, hergestellt von Makeinfo Version
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INFO-DIR-SECTION GNU libraries
START-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
* Libc: (libc).                 C library.
END-INFO-DIR-ENTRY

   This file documents the GNU C library.

   This is Edition 0.07 DRAFT, last updated 4 Oct 1996, of `The GNU C
Library Reference Manual', for Version 2.00 Beta.

   Copyright (C) 1993, '94, '95, '96, '97 Free Software Foundation, Inc.

   Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this
manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are
preserved on all copies.

   Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of
this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided also
that the section entitled "GNU Library General Public License" is
included exactly as in the original, and provided that the entire
resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission
notice identical to this one.

   Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this
manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified
versions, except that the text of the translation of the section
entitled "GNU Library General Public License" must be approved for
accuracy by the Foundation.


File: libc.info,  Node: Error Messages,  Prev: Error Codes,  Up: Error Reporting

Error Messages
==============

   The library has functions and variables designed to make it easy for
your program to report informative error messages in the customary
format about the failure of a library call.  The functions `strerror'
and `perror' give you the standard error message for a given error
code; the variable `program_invocation_short_name' gives you convenient
access to the name of the program that encountered the error.

 - Fonction: char * strerror (int ERRNUM)
     The `strerror' function maps the error code (*note Checking for
     Errors::.) specified by the ERRNUM argument to a descriptive error
     message string.  The return value is a pointer to this string.

     The value ERRNUM normally comes from the variable `errno'.

     You should not modify the string returned by `strerror'.  Also, if
     you make subsequent calls to `strerror', the string might be
     overwritten.  (But it's guaranteed that no library function ever
     calls `strerror' behind your back.)

     The function `strerror' is declared in `string.h'.

 - Fonction: char * strerror_r (int ERRNUM, char *BUF, size_t N)
     The `strerror_r' function works like `strerror' but instead of
     returning the error message in a statically allocated buffer
     shared by all threads in the process, it returns a private copy
     for the thread. This might be either some permanent global data or
     a message string in the user supplied buffer starting at BUF with
     the length of N bytes.

     At most N characters are written (including the NUL byte) so it is
     up to the user to select the buffer large enough.

     This function should always be used in multi-threaded programs
     since there is no way to guarantee the string returned by
     `strerror' really belongs to the last call of the current thread.

     This function `strerror_r' is a GNU extension and it is declared in
     `string.h'.

 - Fonction: void perror (const char *MESSAGE)
     This function prints an error message to the stream `stderr'; see
     *Note Standard Streams::.

     If you call `perror' with a MESSAGE that is either a null pointer
     or an empty string, `perror' just prints the error message
     corresponding to `errno', adding a trailing newline.

     If you supply a non-null MESSAGE argument, then `perror' prefixes
     its output with this string.  It adds a colon and a space
     character to separate the MESSAGE from the error string
     corresponding to `errno'.

     The function `perror' is declared in `stdio.h'.

   `strerror' and `perror' produce the exact same message for any given
error code; the precise text varies from system to system.  On the GNU
system, the messages are fairly short; there are no multi-line messages
or embedded newlines.  Each error message begins with a capital letter
and does not include any terminating punctuation.

   *Compatibility Note:*  The `strerror' function is a new feature of
ISO C.  Many older C systems do not support this function yet.

   Many programs that don't read input from the terminal are designed to
exit if any system call fails.  By convention, the error message from
such a program should start with the program's name, sans directories.
You can find that name in the variable `program_invocation_short_name';
the full file name is stored the variable `program_invocation_name':

 - Variable: char * program_invocation_name
     This variable's value is the name that was used to invoke the
     program running in the current process.  It is the same as
     `argv[0]'.  Note that this is not necessarily a useful file name;
     often it contains no directory names.  *Note Program Arguments::.

 - Variable: char * program_invocation_short_name
     This variable's value is the name that was used to invoke the
     program running in the current process, with directory names
     removed.  (That is to say, it is the same as
     `program_invocation_name' minus everything up to the last slash,
     if any.)

   The library initialization code sets up both of these variables
before calling `main'.

   *Portability Note:* These two variables are GNU extensions.  If you
want your program to work with non-GNU libraries, you must save the
value of `argv[0]' in `main', and then strip off the directory names
yourself.  We added these extensions to make it possible to write
self-contained error-reporting subroutines that require no explicit
cooperation from `main'.

   Here is an example showing how to handle failure to open a file
correctly.  The function `open_sesame' tries to open the named file for
reading and returns a stream if successful.  The `fopen' library
function returns a null pointer if it couldn't open the file for some
reason.  In that situation, `open_sesame' constructs an appropriate
error message using the `strerror' function, and terminates the
program.  If we were going to make some other library calls before
passing the error code to `strerror', we'd have to save it in a local
variable instead, because those other library functions might overwrite
`errno' in the meantime.

     #include <errno.h>
     #include <stdio.h>
     #include <stdlib.h>
     #include <string.h>
     
     FILE *
     open_sesame (char *name)
     {
       FILE *stream;
     
       errno = 0;
       stream = fopen (name, "r");
       if (stream == NULL)
         {
           fprintf (stderr, "%s: Couldn't open file %s; %s\n",
                    program_invocation_short_name, name, strerror (errno));
           exit (EXIT_FAILURE);
         }
       else
         return stream;
     }


File: libc.info,  Node: Memory Allocation,  Next: Character Handling,  Prev: Error Reporting,  Up: Top

Memory Allocation
*****************

   The GNU system provides several methods for allocating memory space
under explicit program control.  They vary in generality and in
efficiency.

* Menü:

* Memory Concepts::             An introduction to concepts and terminology.
* Dynamic Allocation and C::    How to get different kinds of allocation in C.
* Unconstrained Allocation::    The `malloc' facility allows fully general
		 		 dynamic allocation.
* Obstacks::                    Obstacks are less general than malloc
				 but more efficient and convenient.
* Variable Size Automatic::     Allocation of variable-sized blocks
				 of automatic storage that are freed when the
				 calling function returns.
* Relocating Allocator::        Waste less memory, if you can tolerate
				 automatic relocation of the blocks you get.


File: libc.info,  Node: Memory Concepts,  Next: Dynamic Allocation and C,  Up: Memory Allocation

Dynamic Memory Allocation Concepts
==================================

   "Dynamic memory allocation" is a technique in which programs
determine as they are running where to store some information.  You need
dynamic allocation when the number of memory blocks you need, or how
long you continue to need them, depends on the data you are working on.

   For example, you may need a block to store a line read from an input
file; since there is no limit to how long a line can be, you must
allocate the storage dynamically and make it dynamically larger as you
read more of the line.

   Or, you may need a block for each record or each definition in the
input data; since you can't know in advance how many there will be, you
must allocate a new block for each record or definition as you read it.

   When you use dynamic allocation, the allocation of a block of memory
is an action that the program requests explicitly.  You call a function
or macro when you want to allocate space, and specify the size with an
argument.  If you want to free the space, you do so by calling another
function or macro.  You can do these things whenever you want, as often
as you want.


File: libc.info,  Node: Dynamic Allocation and C,  Next: Unconstrained Allocation,  Prev: Memory Concepts,  Up: Memory Allocation

Dynamic Allocation and C
========================

   The C language supports two kinds of memory allocation through the
variables in C programs:

   * "Static allocation" is what happens when you declare a static or
     global variable.  Each static or global variable defines one block
     of space, of a fixed size.  The space is allocated once, when your
     program is started, and is never freed.

   * "Automatic allocation" happens when you declare an automatic
     variable, such as a function argument or a local variable.  The
     space for an automatic variable is allocated when the compound
     statement containing the declaration is entered, and is freed when
     that compound statement is exited.

     In GNU C, the length of the automatic storage can be an expression
     that varies.  In other C implementations, it must be a constant.

   Dynamic allocation is not supported by C variables; there is no
storage class "dynamic", and there can never be a C variable whose
value is stored in dynamically allocated space.  The only way to refer
to dynamically allocated space is through a pointer.  Because it is less
convenient, and because the actual process of dynamic allocation
requires more computation time, programmers generally use dynamic
allocation only when neither static nor automatic allocation will serve.

   For example, if you want to allocate dynamically some space to hold a
`struct foobar', you cannot declare a variable of type `struct foobar'
whose contents are the dynamically allocated space.  But you can
declare a variable of pointer type `struct foobar *' and assign it the
address of the space.  Then you can use the operators `*' and `->' on
this pointer variable to refer to the contents of the space:

     {
       struct foobar *ptr
          = (struct foobar *) malloc (sizeof (struct foobar));
       ptr->name = x;
       ptr->next = current_foobar;
       current_foobar = ptr;
     }


File: libc.info,  Node: Unconstrained Allocation,  Next: Obstacks,  Prev: Dynamic Allocation and C,  Up: Memory Allocation

Unconstrained Allocation
========================

   The most general dynamic allocation facility is `malloc'.  It allows
you to allocate blocks of memory of any size at any time, make them
bigger or smaller at any time, and free the blocks individually at any
time (or never).

* Menü:

* Basic Allocation::            Simple use of `malloc'.
* Malloc Examples::             Examples of `malloc'.  `xmalloc'.
* Freeing after Malloc::        Use `free' to free a block you
				 got with `malloc'.
* Changing Block Size::         Use `realloc' to make a block
				 bigger or smaller.
* Allocating Cleared Space::    Use `calloc' to allocate a
				 block and clear it.
* Efficiency and Malloc::       Efficiency considerations in use of
				 these functions.
* Aligned Memory Blocks::       Allocating specially aligned memory:
				 `memalign' and `valloc'.
* Malloc Tunable Parameters::   Use `mallopt' to adjust allocation
                                 parameters.
* Heap Consistency Checking::   Automatic checking for errors.
* Hooks for Malloc::            You can use these hooks for debugging
				 programs that use `malloc'.
* Statistics of Malloc::        Getting information about how much
				 memory your program is using.
* Summary of Malloc::           Summary of `malloc' and related functions.


File: libc.info,  Node: Basic Allocation,  Next: Malloc Examples,  Up: Unconstrained Allocation

Basic Storage Allocation
------------------------

   To allocate a block of memory, call `malloc'.  The prototype for
this function is in `stdlib.h'.

 - Fonction: void * malloc (size_t SIZE)
     This function returns a pointer to a newly allocated block SIZE
     bytes long, or a null pointer if the block could not be allocated.

   The contents of the block are undefined; you must initialize it
yourself (or use `calloc' instead; *note Allocating Cleared Space::.).
Normally you would cast the value as a pointer to the kind of object
that you want to store in the block.  Here we show an example of doing
so, and of initializing the space with zeros using the library function
`memset' (*note Copying and Concatenation::.):

     struct foo *ptr;
     ...
     ptr = (struct foo *) malloc (sizeof (struct foo));
     if (ptr == 0) abort ();
     memset (ptr, 0, sizeof (struct foo));

   You can store the result of `malloc' into any pointer variable
without a cast, because ISO C automatically converts the type `void *'
to another type of pointer when necessary.  But the cast is necessary
in contexts other than assignment operators or if you might want your
code to run in traditional C.

   Remember that when allocating space for a string, the argument to
`malloc' must be one plus the length of the string.  This is because a
string is terminated with a null character that doesn't count in the
"length" of the string but does need space.  For example:

     char *ptr;
     ...
     ptr = (char *) malloc (length + 1);

*Note Representation of Strings::, for more information about this.


File: libc.info,  Node: Malloc Examples,  Next: Freeing after Malloc,  Prev: Basic Allocation,  Up: Unconstrained Allocation

Examples of `malloc'
--------------------

   If no more space is available, `malloc' returns a null pointer.  You
should check the value of *every* call to `malloc'.  It is useful to
write a subroutine that calls `malloc' and reports an error if the
value is a null pointer, returning only if the value is nonzero.  This
function is conventionally called `xmalloc'.  Here it is:

     void *
     xmalloc (size_t size)
     {
       register void *value = malloc (size);
       if (value == 0)
         fatal ("virtual memory exhausted");
       return value;
     }

   Here is a real example of using `malloc' (by way of `xmalloc').  The
function `savestring' will copy a sequence of characters into a newly
allocated null-terminated string:

     char *
     savestring (const char *ptr, size_t len)
     {
       register char *value = (char *) xmalloc (len + 1);
       memcpy (value, ptr, len);
       value[len] = '\0';
       return value;
     }

   The block that `malloc' gives you is guaranteed to be aligned so
that it can hold any type of data.  In the GNU system, the address is
always a multiple of eight on most systems, and a multiple of 16 on
64-bit systems.  Only rarely is any higher boundary (such as a page
boundary) necessary; for those cases, use `memalign' or `valloc' (*note
Aligned Memory Blocks::.).

   Note that the memory located after the end of the block is likely to
be in use for something else; perhaps a block already allocated by
another call to `malloc'.  If you attempt to treat the block as longer
than you asked for it to be, you are liable to destroy the data that
`malloc' uses to keep track of its blocks, or you may destroy the
contents of another block.  If you have already allocated a block and
discover you want it to be bigger, use `realloc' (*note Changing Block
Size::.).


File: libc.info,  Node: Freeing after Malloc,  Next: Changing Block Size,  Prev: Malloc Examples,  Up: Unconstrained Allocation

Freeing Memory Allocated with `malloc'
--------------------------------------

   When you no longer need a block that you got with `malloc', use the
function `free' to make the block available to be allocated again.  The
prototype for this function is in `stdlib.h'.

 - Fonction: void free (void *PTR)
     The `free' function deallocates the block of storage pointed at by
     PTR.

 - Fonction: void cfree (void *PTR)
     This function does the same thing as `free'.  It's provided for
     backward compatibility with SunOS; you should use `free' instead.

   Freeing a block alters the contents of the block.  *Do not expect to
find any data (such as a pointer to the next block in a chain of
blocks) in the block after freeing it.*  Copy whatever you need out of
the block before freeing it!  Here is an example of the proper way to
free all the blocks in a chain, and the strings that they point to:

     struct chain
       {
         struct chain *next;
         char *name;
       }
     
     void
     free_chain (struct chain *chain)
     {
       while (chain != 0)
         {
           struct chain *next = chain->next;
           free (chain->name);
           free (chain);
           chain = next;
         }
     }

   Occasionally, `free' can actually return memory to the operating
system and make the process smaller.  Usually, all it can do is allow a
later call to `malloc' to reuse the space.  In the meantime, the space
remains in your program as part of a free-list used internally by
`malloc'.

   There is no point in freeing blocks at the end of a program, because
all of the program's space is given back to the system when the process
terminates.


File: libc.info,  Node: Changing Block Size,  Next: Allocating Cleared Space,  Prev: Freeing after Malloc,  Up: Unconstrained Allocation

Changing the Size of a Block
----------------------------

   Often you do not know for certain how big a block you will
ultimately need at the time you must begin to use the block.  For
example, the block might be a buffer that you use to hold a line being
read from a file; no matter how long you make the buffer initially, you
may encounter a line that is longer.

   You can make the block longer by calling `realloc'.  This function
is declared in `stdlib.h'.

 - Fonction: void * realloc (void *PTR, size_t NEWSIZE)
     The `realloc' function changes the size of the block whose address
     is PTR to be NEWSIZE.

     Since the space after the end of the block may be in use, `realloc'
     may find it necessary to copy the block to a new address where
     more free space is available.  The value of `realloc' is the new
     address of the block.  If the block needs to be moved, `realloc'
     copies the old contents.

     If you pass a null pointer for PTR, `realloc' behaves just like
     `malloc (NEWSIZE)'.  This can be convenient, but beware that older
     implementations (before ISO C) may not support this behavior, and
     will probably crash when `realloc' is passed a null pointer.

   Like `malloc', `realloc' may return a null pointer if no memory
space is available to make the block bigger.  When this happens, the
original block is untouched; it has not been modified or relocated.

   In most cases it makes no difference what happens to the original
block when `realloc' fails, because the application program cannot
continue when it is out of memory, and the only thing to do is to give
a fatal error message.  Often it is convenient to write and use a
subroutine, conventionally called `xrealloc', that takes care of the
error message as `xmalloc' does for `malloc':

     void *
     xrealloc (void *ptr, size_t size)
     {
       register void *value = realloc (ptr, size);
       if (value == 0)
         fatal ("Virtual memory exhausted");
       return value;
     }

   You can also use `realloc' to make a block smaller.  The reason you
is needed.  In several allocation implementations, making a block
smaller sometimes necessitates copying it, so it can fail if no other
space is available.

   If the new size you specify is the same as the old size, `realloc'
is guaranteed to change nothing and return the same address that you
gave.


File: libc.info,  Node: Allocating Cleared Space,  Next: Efficiency and Malloc,  Prev: Changing Block Size,  Up: Unconstrained Allocation

Allocating Cleared Space
------------------------

   The function `calloc' allocates memory and clears it to zero.  It is
declared in `stdlib.h'.

 - Fonction: void * calloc (size_t COUNT, size_t ELTSIZE)
     This function allocates a block long enough to contain a vector of
     COUNT elements, each of size ELTSIZE.  Its contents are cleared to
     zero before `calloc' returns.

   You could define `calloc' as follows:

     void *
     calloc (size_t count, size_t eltsize)
     {
       size_t size = count * eltsize;
       void *value = malloc (size);
       if (value != 0)
         memset (value, 0, size);
       return value;
     }

   But in general, it is not guaranteed that `calloc' calls `malloc'
internally.  Therefore, if an application provides its own
`malloc'/`realloc'/`free' outside the C library, it should always
define `calloc', too.


File: libc.info,  Node: Efficiency and Malloc,  Next: Aligned Memory Blocks,  Prev: Allocating Cleared Space,  Up: Unconstrained Allocation

Efficiency Considerations for `malloc'
--------------------------------------

   As apposed to other versions, the `malloc' in GNU libc does not
round up block sizes to powers of two, neither for large nor for small
sizes.  Neighboring chunks can be coalesced on a `free' no matter what
their size is.  This makes the implementation suitable for all kinds of
allocation patterns without generally incurring high memory waste
through fragmentation.

   Very large blocks (much larger than a page) are allocated with
`mmap' (anonymous or via `/dev/zero') by this implementation.  This has
the great advantage that these chunks are returned to the system
immediately when they are freed.  Therefore, it cannot happen that a
large chunk becomes "locked" in between smaller ones and even after
calling `free' wastes memory.  The size threshold for `mmap' to be used
can be adjusted with `mallopt'.  The use of `mmap' can also be disabled
completely.


File: libc.info,  Node: Aligned Memory Blocks,  Next: Malloc Tunable Parameters,  Prev: Efficiency and Malloc,  Up: Unconstrained Allocation

Allocating Aligned Memory Blocks
--------------------------------

   The address of a block returned by `malloc' or `realloc' in the GNU
system is always a multiple of eight (or sixteen on 64-bit systems).
If you need a block whose address is a multiple of a higher power of
two than that, use `memalign' or `valloc'.  These functions are
declared in `stdlib.h'.

   With the GNU library, you can use `free' to free the blocks that
`memalign' and `valloc' return.  That does not work in BSD,
however--BSD does not provide any way to free such blocks.

 - Fonction: void * memalign (size_t BOUNDARY, size_t SIZE)
     The `memalign' function allocates a block of SIZE bytes whose
     address is a multiple of BOUNDARY.  The BOUNDARY must be a power
     of two!  The function `memalign' works by allocating a somewhat
     larger block, and then returning an address within the block that
     is on the specified boundary.

 - Fonction: void * valloc (size_t SIZE)
     Using `valloc' is like using `memalign' and passing the page size
     as the value of the second argument.  It is implemented like this:

          void *
          valloc (size_t size)
          {
            return memalign (getpagesize (), size);
          }


File: libc.info,  Node: Malloc Tunable Parameters,  Next: Heap Consistency Checking,  Prev: Aligned Memory Blocks,  Up: Unconstrained Allocation

Malloc Tunable Parameters
-------------------------

   You can adjust some parameters for dynamic memory allocation with the
`mallopt' function.  This function is the general SVID/XPG interface,
defined in `malloc.h'.

 - Fonction: int mallopt (int PARAM, int VALUE)
     When calling `mallopt', the PARAM argument specifies the parameter
     to be set, and VALUE the new value to be set.  Possible choices
     for PARAM, as defined in `malloc.h', are:

    `M_TRIM_THRESHOLD'
          This is the minimum size (in bytes) of the top-most,
          releaseable chunk that will cause `sbrk' to be called with a
          negative argument in order to return memory to the system.

    `M_TOP_PAD'
          This parameter determines the amount of extra memory to
          obtain from the system when a call to `sbrk' is required.  It
          also specifies the number of bytes to retain when shrinking
          the heap by calling `sbrk' with a negative argument.  This
          provides the necessary hysteresis in heap size such that
          excessive amounts of system calls can be avoided.

    `M_MMAP_THRESHOLD'
          All chunks larger than this value are allocated outside the
          normal heap, using the `mmap' system call.  This way it is
          guaranteed that the memory for these chunks can be returned
          to the system on `free'.

    `M_MMAP_MAX'
          The maximum number of chunks to allocate with `mmap'.
          Setting this to zero disables all use of `mmap'.



File: libc.info,  Node: Heap Consistency Checking,  Next: Hooks for Malloc,  Prev: Malloc Tunable Parameters,  Up: Unconstrained Allocation

Heap Consistency Checking
-------------------------

   You can ask `malloc' to check the consistency of dynamic storage by
using the `mcheck' function.  This function is a GNU extension,
declared in `mcheck.h'.

 - Fonction: int mcheck (void (*ABORTFN) (enum mcheck_status STATUS))
     Calling `mcheck' tells `malloc' to perform occasional consistency
     checks.  These will catch things such as writing past the end of a
     block that was allocated with `malloc'.

     The ABORTFN argument is the function to call when an inconsistency
     is found.  If you supply a null pointer, then `mcheck' uses a
     default function which prints a message and calls `abort' (*note
     Aborting a Program::.).  The function you supply is called with
     one argument, which says what sort of inconsistency was detected;
     its type is described below.

     It is too late to begin allocation checking once you have allocated
     anything with `malloc'.  So `mcheck' does nothing in that case.
     The function returns `-1' if you call it too late, and `0'
     otherwise (when it is successful).

     The easiest way to arrange to call `mcheck' early enough is to use
     the option `-lmcheck' when you link your program; then you don't
     need to modify your program source at all.

 - Fonction: enum mcheck_status mprobe (void *POINTER)
     The `mprobe' function lets you explicitly check for inconsistencies
     in a particular allocated block.  You must have already called
     `mcheck' at the beginning of the program, to do its occasional
     checks; calling `mprobe' requests an additional consistency check
     to be done at the time of the call.

     The argument POINTER must be a pointer returned by `malloc' or
     `realloc'.  `mprobe' returns a value that says what inconsistency,
     if any, was found.  The values are described below.

 - Data Type: enum mcheck_status
     This enumerated type describes what kind of inconsistency was
     detected in an allocated block, if any.  Here are the possible
     values:

    `MCHECK_DISABLED'
          `mcheck' was not called before the first allocation.  No
          consistency checking can be done.

    `MCHECK_OK'
          No inconsistency detected.

    `MCHECK_HEAD'
          The data immediately before the block was modified.  This
          commonly happens when an array index or pointer is
          decremented too far.

    `MCHECK_TAIL'
          The data immediately after the block was modified.  This
          commonly happens when an array index or pointer is
          incremented too far.

    `MCHECK_FREE'
          The block was already freed.


File: libc.info,  Node: Hooks for Malloc,  Next: Statistics of Malloc,  Prev: Heap Consistency Checking,  Up: Unconstrained Allocation

Storage Allocation Hooks
------------------------

   The GNU C library lets you modify the behavior of `malloc',
`realloc', and `free' by specifying appropriate hook functions.  You
can use these hooks to help you debug programs that use dynamic storage
allocation, for example.

   The hook variables are declared in `malloc.h'.

 - Variable: __malloc_hook
     The value of this variable is a pointer to function that `malloc'
     uses whenever it is called.  You should define this function to
     look like `malloc'; that is, like:

          void *FUNCTION (size_t SIZE)

 - Variable: __realloc_hook
     The value of this variable is a pointer to function that `realloc'
     uses whenever it is called.  You should define this function to
     look like `realloc'; that is, like:

          void *FUNCTION (void *PTR, size_t SIZE)

 - Variable: __free_hook
     The value of this variable is a pointer to function that `free'
     uses whenever it is called.  You should define this function to
     look like `free'; that is, like:

          void FUNCTION (void *PTR)

   You must make sure that the function you install as a hook for one of
these functions does not call that function recursively without
restoring the old value of the hook first!  Otherwise, your program
will get stuck in an infinite recursion.

   Here is an example showing how to use `__malloc_hook' properly.  It
installs a function that prints out information every time `malloc' is
called.

     static void *(*old_malloc_hook) (size_t);
     static void *
     my_malloc_hook (size_t size)
     {
       void *result;
       __malloc_hook = old_malloc_hook;
       result = malloc (size);
       /* `printf' might call `malloc', so protect it too. */
       printf ("malloc (%u) returns %p\n", (unsigned int) size, result);
       __malloc_hook = my_malloc_hook;
       return result;
     }
     
     main ()
     {
       ...
       old_malloc_hook = __malloc_hook;
       __malloc_hook = my_malloc_hook;
       ...
     }

   The `mcheck' function (*note Heap Consistency Checking::.) works by
installing such hooks.


File: libc.info,  Node: Statistics of Malloc,  Next: Summary of Malloc,  Prev: Hooks for Malloc,  Up: Unconstrained Allocation

Statistics for Storage Allocation with `malloc'
-----------------------------------------------

   You can get information about dynamic storage allocation by calling
the `mallinfo' function.  This function and its associated data type
are declared in `malloc.h'; they are an extension of the standard
SVID/XPG version.

 - Data Type: struct mallinfo
     This structure type is used to return information about the dynamic
     storage allocator.  It contains the following members:

    `int arena'
          This is the total size of memory allocated with `sbrk' by
          `malloc', in bytes.

    `int ordblks'
          This is the number of chunks not in use.  (The storage
          allocator internally gets chunks of memory from the operating
          system, and then carves them up to satisfy individual
          `malloc' requests; see *Note Efficiency and Malloc::.)

    `int smblks'
          This field is unused.

    `int hblks'
          This is the total number of chunks allocated with `mmap'.

    `int hblkhd'
          This is the total size of memory allocated with `mmap', in
          bytes.

    `int usmblks'
          This field is unused.

    `int fsmblks'
          This field is unused.

    `int uordblks'
          This is the total size of memory occupied by chunks handed
          out by `malloc'.

    `int fordblks'
          This is the total size of memory occupied by free (not in
          use) chunks.

    `int keepcost'
          This is the size of the top-most, releaseable chunk that
          normally borders the end of the heap (i.e. the "brk" of the
          process).


 - Fonction: struct mallinfo mallinfo (void)
     This function returns information about the current dynamic memory
     usage in a structure of type `struct mallinfo'.


File: libc.info,  Node: Summary of Malloc,  Prev: Statistics of Malloc,  Up: Unconstrained Allocation

Summary of `malloc'-Related Functions
-------------------------------------

   Here is a summary of the functions that work with `malloc':

`void *malloc (size_t SIZE)'
     Allocate a block of SIZE bytes.  *Note Basic Allocation::.

`void free (void *ADDR)'
     Free a block previously allocated by `malloc'.  *Note Freeing
     after Malloc::.

`void *realloc (void *ADDR, size_t SIZE)'
     Make a block previously allocated by `malloc' larger or smaller,
     possibly by copying it to a new location.  *Note Changing Block
     Size::.

`void *calloc (size_t COUNT, size_t ELTSIZE)'
     Allocate a block of COUNT * ELTSIZE bytes using `malloc', and set
     its contents to zero.  *Note Allocating Cleared Space::.

`void *valloc (size_t SIZE)'
     Allocate a block of SIZE bytes, starting on a page boundary.
     *Note Aligned Memory Blocks::.

`void *memalign (size_t SIZE, size_t BOUNDARY)'
     Allocate a block of SIZE bytes, starting on an address that is a
     multiple of BOUNDARY.  *Note Aligned Memory Blocks::.

`int mallopt (int PARAM, int VALUE)'
     Adjust a tunable parameter.  *Note Malloc Tunable Parameters::

`int mcheck (void (*ABORTFN) (void))'
     Tell `malloc' to perform occasional consistency checks on
     dynamically allocated memory, and to call ABORTFN when an
     inconsistency is found.  *Note Heap Consistency Checking::.

`void *(*__malloc_hook) (size_t SIZE)'
     A pointer to a function that `malloc' uses whenever it is called.

`void *(*__realloc_hook) (void *PTR, size_t SIZE)'
     A pointer to a function that `realloc' uses whenever it is called.

`void (*__free_hook) (void *PTR)'
     A pointer to a function that `free' uses whenever it is called.

`struct mallinfo mallinfo (void)'
     Return information about the current dynamic memory usage.  *Note
     Statistics of Malloc::.


File: libc.info,  Node: Obstacks,  Next: Variable Size Automatic,  Prev: Unconstrained Allocation,  Up: Memory Allocation

Obstacks
========

   An "obstack" is a pool of memory containing a stack of objects.  You
can create any number of separate obstacks, and then allocate objects in
specified obstacks.  Within each obstack, the last object allocated must
always be the first one freed, but distinct obstacks are independent of
each other.

   Aside from this one constraint of order of freeing, obstacks are
totally general: an obstack can contain any number of objects of any
size.  They are implemented with macros, so allocation is usually very
fast as long as the objects are usually small.  And the only space
overhead per object is the padding needed to start each object on a
suitable boundary.

* Menü:

* Creating Obstacks::		How to declare an obstack in your program.
* Preparing for Obstacks::	Preparations needed before you can
				 use obstacks.
* Allocation in an Obstack::    Allocating objects in an obstack.
* Freeing Obstack Objects::     Freeing objects in an obstack.
* Obstack Functions::		The obstack functions are both
				 functions and macros.
* Growing Objects::             Making an object bigger by stages.
* Extra Fast Growing::		Extra-high-efficiency (though more
				 complicated) growing objects.
* Status of an Obstack::        Inquiries about the status of an obstack.
* Obstacks Data Alignment::     Controlling alignment of objects in obstacks.
* Obstack Chunks::              How obstacks obtain and release chunks;
				 efficiency considerations.
* Summary of Obstacks::


File: libc.info,  Node: Creating Obstacks,  Next: Preparing for Obstacks,  Up: Obstacks

Creating Obstacks
-----------------

   The utilities for manipulating obstacks are declared in the header
file `obstack.h'.

 - Data Type: struct obstack
     An obstack is represented by a data structure of type `struct
     obstack'.  This structure has a small fixed size; it records the
     status of the obstack and how to find the space in which objects
     are allocated.  It does not contain any of the objects themselves.
     You should not try to access the contents of the structure
     directly; use only the functions described in this chapter.

   You can declare variables of type `struct obstack' and use them as
obstacks, or you can allocate obstacks dynamically like any other kind
of object.  Dynamic allocation of obstacks allows your program to have a
variable number of different stacks.  (You can even allocate an obstack
structure in another obstack, but this is rarely useful.)

   All the functions that work with obstacks require you to specify
which obstack to use.  You do this with a pointer of type `struct
obstack *'.  In the following, we often say "an obstack" when strictly
speaking the object at hand is such a pointer.

   The objects in the obstack are packed into large blocks called
"chunks".  The `struct obstack' structure points to a chain of the
chunks currently in use.

   The obstack library obtains a new chunk whenever you allocate an
object that won't fit in the previous chunk.  Since the obstack library
manages chunks automatically, you don't need to pay much attention to
them, but you do need to supply a function which the obstack library
should use to get a chunk.  Usually you supply a function which uses
`malloc' directly or indirectly.  You must also supply a function to
free a chunk.  These matters are described in the following section.


File: libc.info,  Node: Preparing for Obstacks,  Next: Allocation in an Obstack,  Prev: Creating Obstacks,  Up: Obstacks

Preparing for Using Obstacks
----------------------------

   Each source file in which you plan to use the obstack functions must
include the header file `obstack.h', like this:

     #include <obstack.h>

   Also, if the source file uses the macro `obstack_init', it must
declare or define two functions or macros that will be called by the
obstack library.  One, `obstack_chunk_alloc', is used to allocate the
chunks of memory into which objects are packed.  The other,
`obstack_chunk_free', is used to return chunks when the objects in them
are freed.  These macros should appear before any use of obstacks in
the source file.

   Usually these are defined to use `malloc' via the intermediary
`xmalloc' (*note Unconstrained Allocation::.).  This is done with the
following pair of macro definitions:

     #define obstack_chunk_alloc xmalloc
     #define obstack_chunk_free free

Though the storage you get using obstacks really comes from `malloc',
using obstacks is faster because `malloc' is called less often, for
larger blocks of memory.  *Note Obstack Chunks::, for full details.

   At run time, before the program can use a `struct obstack' object as
an obstack, it must initialize the obstack by calling `obstack_init'.

 - Fonction: int obstack_init (struct obstack *OBSTACK-PTR)
     Initialize obstack OBSTACK-PTR for allocation of objects.  This
     function calls the obstack's `obstack_chunk_alloc' function.  It
     returns 0 if `obstack_chunk_alloc' returns a null pointer, meaning
     that it is out of memory.  Otherwise, it returns 1.  If you supply
     an `obstack_chunk_alloc' function that calls `exit' (*note Program
     Termination::.) or `longjmp' (*note Non-Local Exits::.) when out
     of memory, you can safely ignore the value that `obstack_init'
     returns.

   Here are two examples of how to allocate the space for an obstack and
initialize it.  First, an obstack that is a static variable:

     static struct obstack myobstack;
     ...
     obstack_init (&myobstack);

Second, an obstack that is itself dynamically allocated:

     struct obstack *myobstack_ptr
       = (struct obstack *) xmalloc (sizeof (struct obstack));
     
     obstack_init (myobstack_ptr);


File: libc.info,  Node: Allocation in an Obstack,  Next: Freeing Obstack Objects,  Prev: Preparing for Obstacks,  Up: Obstacks

Allocation in an Obstack
------------------------

   The most direct way to allocate an object in an obstack is with
`obstack_alloc', which is invoked almost like `malloc'.

 - Fonction: void * obstack_alloc (struct obstack *OBSTACK-PTR, int
          SIZE)
     This allocates an uninitialized block of SIZE bytes in an obstack
     and returns its address.  Here OBSTACK-PTR specifies which obstack
     to allocate the block in; it is the address of the `struct obstack'
     object which represents the obstack.  Each obstack function or
     macro requires you to specify an OBSTACK-PTR as the first argument.

     This function calls the obstack's `obstack_chunk_alloc' function if
     it needs to allocate a new chunk of memory; it returns a null
     pointer if `obstack_chunk_alloc' returns one.  In that case, it
     has not changed the amount of memory allocated in the obstack.  If
     you supply an `obstack_chunk_alloc' function that calls `exit'
     (*note Program Termination::.) or `longjmp' (*note Non-Local
     Exits::.) when out of memory, then `obstack_alloc' will never
     return a null pointer.

   For example, here is a function that allocates a copy of a string STR
in a specific obstack, which is in the variable `string_obstack':

     struct obstack string_obstack;
     
     char *
     copystring (char *string)
     {
       size_t len = strlen (string) + 1;
       char *s = (char *) obstack_alloc (&string_obstack, len);
       memcpy (s, string, len);
       return s;
     }

   To allocate a block with specified contents, use the function
`obstack_copy', declared like this:

 - Fonction: void * obstack_copy (struct obstack *OBSTACK-PTR, void
          *ADDRESS, int SIZE)
     This allocates a block and initializes it by copying SIZE bytes of
     data starting at ADDRESS.  It can return a null pointer under the
     same conditions as `obstack_alloc'.

 - Fonction: void * obstack_copy0 (struct obstack *OBSTACK-PTR, void
          *ADDRESS, int SIZE)
     Like `obstack_copy', but appends an extra byte containing a null
     character.  This extra byte is not counted in the argument SIZE.

   The `obstack_copy0' function is convenient for copying a sequence of
characters into an obstack as a null-terminated string.  Here is an
example of its use:

     char *
     obstack_savestring (char *addr, int size)
     {
       return obstack_copy0 (&myobstack, addr, size);
     }

Contrast this with the previous example of `savestring' using `malloc'
(*note Basic Allocation::.).


File: libc.info,  Node: Freeing Obstack Objects,  Next: Obstack Functions,  Prev: Allocation in an Obstack,  Up: Obstacks

Freeing Objects in an Obstack
-----------------------------

   To free an object allocated in an obstack, use the function
`obstack_free'.  Since the obstack is a stack of objects, freeing one
object automatically frees all other objects allocated more recently in
the same obstack.

 - Fonction: void obstack_free (struct obstack *OBSTACK-PTR, void
          *OBJECT)
     If OBJECT is a null pointer, everything allocated in the obstack
     is freed.  Otherwise, OBJECT must be the address of an object
     allocated in the obstack.  Then OBJECT is freed, along with
     everything allocated in OBSTACK since OBJECT.

   Note that if OBJECT is a null pointer, the result is an
uninitialized obstack.  To free all storage in an obstack but leave it
valid for further allocation, call `obstack_free' with the address of
the first object allocated on the obstack:

     obstack_free (obstack_ptr, first_object_allocated_ptr);

   Recall that the objects in an obstack are grouped into chunks.  When
all the objects in a chunk become free, the obstack library
automatically frees the chunk (*note Preparing for Obstacks::.).  Then
other obstacks, or non-obstack allocation, can reuse the space of the
chunk.


File: libc.info,  Node: Obstack Functions,  Next: Growing Objects,  Prev: Freeing Obstack Objects,  Up: Obstacks

Obstack Functions and Macros
----------------------------

   The interfaces for using obstacks may be defined either as functions
or as macros, depending on the compiler.  The obstack facility works
with all C compilers, including both ISO C and traditional C, but there
are precautions you must take if you plan to use compilers other than
GNU C.

   If you are using an old-fashioned non-ISO C compiler, all the obstack
"functions" are actually defined only as macros.  You can call these
macros like functions, but you cannot use them in any other way (for
example, you cannot take their address).

   Calling the macros requires a special precaution: namely, the first
operand (the obstack pointer) may not contain any side effects, because
it may be computed more than once.  For example, if you write this:

     obstack_alloc (get_obstack (), 4);

you will find that `get_obstack' may be called several times.  If you
use `*obstack_list_ptr++' as the obstack pointer argument, you will get
very strange results since the incrementation may occur several times.

   In ISO C, each function has both a macro definition and a function
definition.  The function definition is used if you take the address of
the function without calling it.  An ordinary call uses the macro
definition by default, but you can request the function definition
instead by writing the function name in parentheses, as shown here:

     char *x;
     void *(*funcp) ();
     /* Use the macro.  */
     x = (char *) obstack_alloc (obptr, size);
     /* Call the function.  */
     x = (char *) (obstack_alloc) (obptr, size);
     /* Take the address of the function.  */
     funcp = obstack_alloc;

This is the same situation that exists in ISO C for the standard library
functions.  *Note Macro Definitions::.

   *Warning:* When you do use the macros, you must observe the
precaution of avoiding side effects in the first operand, even in ISO C.

   If you use the GNU C compiler, this precaution is not necessary,
because various language extensions in GNU C permit defining the macros
so as to compute each argument only once.


File: libc.info,  Node: Growing Objects,  Next: Extra Fast Growing,  Prev: Obstack Functions,  Up: Obstacks

Growing Objects
---------------

   Because storage in obstack chunks is used sequentially, it is
possible to build up an object step by step, adding one or more bytes
at a time to the end of the object.  With this technique, you do not
need to know how much data you will put in the object until you come to
the end of it.  We call this the technique of "growing objects".  The
special functions for adding data to the growing object are described
in this section.

   You don't need to do anything special when you start to grow an
object.  Using one of the functions to add data to the object
automatically starts it.  However, it is necessary to say explicitly
when the object is finished.  This is done with the function
`obstack_finish'.

   The actual address of the object thus built up is not known until the
object is finished.  Until then, it always remains possible that you
will add so much data that the object must be copied into a new chunk.

   While the obstack is in use for a growing object, you cannot use it
for ordinary allocation of another object.  If you try to do so, the
space already added to the growing object will become part of the other
object.

 - Fonction: void obstack_blank (struct obstack *OBSTACK-PTR, int SIZE)
     The most basic function for adding to a growing object is
     `obstack_blank', which adds space without initializing it.

 - Fonction: void obstack_grow (struct obstack *OBSTACK-PTR, void
          *DATA, int SIZE)
     To add a block of initialized space, use `obstack_grow', which is
     the growing-object analogue of `obstack_copy'.  It adds SIZE bytes
     of data to the growing object, copying the contents from DATA.

 - Fonction: void obstack_grow0 (struct obstack *OBSTACK-PTR, void
          *DATA, int SIZE)
     This is the growing-object analogue of `obstack_copy0'.  It adds
     SIZE bytes copied from DATA, followed by an additional null
     character.

 - Fonction: void obstack_1grow (struct obstack *OBSTACK-PTR, char C)
     To add one character at a time, use the function `obstack_1grow'.
     It adds a single byte containing C to the growing object.

 - Fonction: void obstack_ptr_grow (struct obstack *OBSTACK-PTR, void
          *DATA)
     Adding the value of a pointer one can use the function
     `obstack_ptr_grow'.  It adds `sizeof (void *)' bytes containing
     the value of DATA.

 - Fonction: void obstack_int_grow (struct obstack *OBSTACK-PTR, int
          DATA)
     A single value of type `int' can be added by using the
     `obstack_int_grow' function.  It adds `sizeof (int)' bytes to the
     growing object and initializes them with the value of DATA.

 - Fonction: void * obstack_finish (struct obstack *OBSTACK-PTR)
     When you are finished growing the object, use the function
     `obstack_finish' to close it off and return its final address.

     Once you have finished the object, the obstack is available for
     ordinary allocation or for growing another object.

     This function can return a null pointer under the same conditions
     as `obstack_alloc' (*note Allocation in an Obstack::.).

   When you build an object by growing it, you will probably need to
know afterward how long it became.  You need not keep track of this as
you grow the object, because you can find out the length from the
obstack just before finishing the object with the function
`obstack_object_size', declared as follows:

 - Fonction: int obstack_object_size (struct obstack *OBSTACK-PTR)
     This function returns the current size of the growing object, in
     bytes.  Remember to call this function *before* finishing the
     object.  After it is finished, `obstack_object_size' will return
     zero.

   If you have started growing an object and wish to cancel it, you
should finish it and then free it, like this:

     obstack_free (obstack_ptr, obstack_finish (obstack_ptr));

This has no effect if no object was growing.

   You can use `obstack_blank' with a negative size argument to make
the current object smaller.  Just don't try to shrink it beyond zero
length--there's no telling what will happen if you do that.

